The First Recitative-Chorus from Haydn's The Creation:
Rendering Forces of Darkness and Light Audible
Jon Sakata

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction
List of Abbreviations for Works Frequently Cited
The First Recitative-Chorus from Haydn's The Creation:
Rendering Forces of Darkness and Light Audible
The Genesis of Sonorous Light
The Interaction of Darkness and Light
Notes

Introduction[*]

This dissertation consists of analyses of two outstanding vocal works that involve the transformative passage between realms of oppositional natures. Part I is an analysis of one of the climactic scenes from the Korean pansori epic Simchung-ga ["The Song of Simchung"]: Simbongsa's lamentation for his deceased wife Kwaak-ssi. The scene presents the simultaneity of destruction and construction, death and life: Simbongsa's devastation in losing his wife, and his creation through song of a monument memorializing her.

The lament conveys his struggle in contending with the passage from life to death, as well as life after death: apparent composure to delirium, personal loss to cosmic (dis-)order. Part II is an analysis of the First Recitative-Chorus from Haydn's The Creation: the emergence of light out of darkness. Both analyses investigate how oppositional realms are brought into relation with one another – focusing on their assemblage, interactions, and interpenetrations.

Both analyses also seek to present the rich, complex sonic relations that make up these works beyond the common analytical notions of modality in the case of pansori and tonality in Haydn. While the importance of musical language is both acknowledged and offered in this dissertation, particular emphasis is placed upon the potential interrelationships that exist between musical language and other important parameters of musical design: spatial and temporal deployments, tone color properties of vocal and instrumental forces, and other expressive sonic phenomena. What these analyses seek to convey is that both works share a depth and wealth – from micro- to macro- level dimensions – of sonic affects and relations that are manifested with rigor, potency, and refinement. Such sonic realities have, to no small extent, remained largely hidden due to reductive methodologies, understandings based on notational limitations and metaphorical descriptions as opposed to actual materiality, as well as cultural assumptions. The dissertation is not intended solely to contrast cultures East and West. Rather, it intends equally to show them constructing out of a common materiality – sound – powerful, deeply affecting structures.

Abbreviations for Works Frequently Cited

APM Jürgen Meyer, Acoustics and the Performance of Music, trans. John Bowsher and Sibylle Westphal (Frankfurt/Main: Verlag Das Musikinstrument, 1978)

HHW Haydn and His World, ed. Elaine Sisman (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997)

HTC Nicholas Temperly, Haydn: The Creation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991)

ISE John Latartara, "Instrumental Tone Color Analysis: Spectrographic Examples," diss., New England
Conservatory, 2002

ITC John Latartara, "Instrumental Tone Color Analysis: A Spectrographic Exploration," diss., New England Conservatory, 2002

PHC A. Peter Brown, Performing Haydn's ‘The Creation': Reconstructing the Earliest Renditions (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986)

SD Robert Cogan and Pozzi Escot, Sonic Design: The Nature of Sound and Music (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1976; Cambridge, Massachusetts: Publication Contact International, 1984)

TPU Konrad B. Krauskopf and Arthur Beiser, The Physical Universe (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1986)

The First Recitative-Chorus from Haydn's The Creation:
Rendering Forces of Darkness and Light Audible

...I could make experiments,
observe what created an impression and what weakened it,
thus improve, add, make cuts, take risks. I was isolated from the world;
no one in my vicinity could make me lose my confidence in myself or bother me,
and so I had to become original.[1]

Joseph Haydn

Artworks are composed of sensations...
brought together in an expressive material through a construct with an anorganized plan,
with which we have peculiar relations. They are not there to save us or perfect us (or damn us or corrupt us), but rather to complicate things, to create more complex nervous systems no longer subservient to the debilitating effects of clichés, to show and release the possibilities of a life.[2]

John Rajchman
The Deleuze Connections

...the thread that may connect us with the Enlightenment is not faithfulness to doctrinal elements,
but rather the permanent reactivation of an attitude: that is...as a permanent critique of our era.[3]

Michel Foucault
What is Enlightenment?

Based upon Haydn's own words it is perhaps not a misconception to think of Esterháza as his 'sonic laboratory'. 'Haydn the experimenter of sound' has a rather strange ring to it though; perhaps, at least partly, due to the fact that scholarship has yet to illuminate his use of sound and sonic phenomena. There are, of course, numerous analyses – implementing methodologies based on the reductive representation of sonic reality (pitch and notation-based analytics)[4] – that have revealed important aspects of his compositions. But none have dealt with Haydn's actual sonic materiality. Indeed, over two hundred years after its completion (1798), while The Creation, as A. Peter Brown has noted, "has been subjected to more discussion than any other single work by the composer"[5]; there is not a single published analysis – of any part of The Creation – that has explored Haydn's sonic reality. In light of Haydn's reputation during his own lifetime as a sonic innovator, this state of affairs is all the more enigmatic.[6] To state the obvious, this void in scholarship is problematical: how are illuminations of Haydn's sonic universe to be arrived at without analytical perspectives that investigate sound and sonic phenomena? The following analysis of the First Recitative-Chorus from The Creation is an attempt to begin to fill this void.

Sonorous light and darkness were not givens, but sensible events that Haydn had to create. Haydn was faced with tracing a path between impossibilities: the problem of how to render audible that which is inaudible. By setting himself such an impossibility though, he thereby created new sonic possibilities: manifestations of light in the First Recitative-Chorus, for example, not only as ‘metaphorized' essences, representations, symbols (or at least not exclusively as such); but as complex sensible aggregates – purely musical light-affects. Haydn's ‘experiment' in sonorous light and darkness involves distinctive harnessings of the then relatively new coloristic forces of the symphonic orchestra, as well as German language sounds. The following analysis offers insights into how Haydn has created sonorous affects of darkness and light through particular tone color characteristics of instruments and voices; and how these characteristics are integrated with musical language, textual sound/meaning relations, and particular deployments in musical space and time.

One of the challenges facing musical analysis is imaging sonic reality. In my analysis of pansori (Part I of my dissertation; not included here), spectrographic analysis was an indispensable tool in gaining insight into sonic/structural dimensions and relations. It allowed objective penetration into sonic microcosms/macrocosms and performance contexts that had previously remained obscure. Spectrographic images again will play an important role in arriving at sonic/structural understandings. Of course, the critical role of spectral analysis in expanding understanding is not limited to the field of music: it is integral to every scientific domain that is involved in the study of energy, chemical elements, and sound. For example, in physics and astronomy, spectral analysis is fundamental to the investigation of atomic and galactic phenomena and structures. As every element, on atomic and molecular levels, has a signature spectral pattern, scientists are able to precisely identify the presence (or absence) of elements in experiments ranging from the infinitesimal realm of quantum events to discovering the chemistry of distant planets and stars. [TPU: 645] Only with the advent of spectral analysis in 19th century stellar astronomy (previously only telescopes were used) – in conjunction with photographic and computer technologies in the 20th century – have scientists been able to begin to understand the nature of cosmic bodies (e.g., their ages, distances, intrinsic brightness, sizes, temperatures, compositions, conditions of matter [whether chemicals exist in molecular or atomic form], magnetic fields, and motions). [TPU: 643-649, 655-662] Today, study of the Universe without spectral analysis is unthinkable.

The Genesis of Sonorous Light

I was a wizard at no instrument, but I knew the strength and working of all.[7]

Joseph Haydn

The fascinating sound of the new symphony orchestra was due in part to the augmenting of strings,
in part to the new way of using winds and exploiting their specific colors...
color stands out as a characteristic element,
and soon its structural values, too, are recognized.[8]

Friedrich Blume
The Orchestra and the Classic Concept of Sound

Example I, a spectrographic photo, offers both telescopic and microscopic views of the First Recitative-Chorus.[9] Therein the opposing sonic realms of sonorous darkness (Phase I) and sonorous light (Phase II) are made visible: the former (mm. 1-26) consists of an array of relatively sparse sonic features of (e.g., acute spectral speckles, ascending and descending gestures through musical space, some of which are steeply sloping and others gradually inclined); the latter (mm. 27-37), by contrast, consists of rich, noise-infused sonic pillars.[10] These strikingly different soundscapes are the result of Haydn's handling of instrumental and vocal tone color properties: Haydn's choice of particular instrumentation at particular intensities with particular sound modifications.

One of the key determinants of spectral richness and sparseness is intensity: the louder the sound the greater the spectral activity, especially in the higher, brighter spectral regions. Consequently, Haydn's assignation of piano and pianissimo for Phase I vs. forte and fortissimo for Phase II, plays an integral role in the spectral differentiation of these Phases. But as Latartara has shown, strings – even at soft dynamics – produce numerous partials (for example, the violin at pianissimo has approximately 17-20+ partials) [ISE: 160] One way to modify this inherent wealth of spectral activity is through the use of sonic filters. Haydn's con sordino direction for strings is consequential: the number of partials of a violin is reduced by an approximate ratio of 7:1 [ISE: 165],[11] viola by approximately 8:1 [ISE: 187], cello by approximately 10:1 [ISE: 210], and double bass by approximately 3:1 [ISE: 233]. The combination of soft dynamics and sonic filters results in the strings' sparseness. Besides the strings, the only other instrument that Haydn utilizes in Phase I is the clarinet (mm. 6-7). This choice is significant: Haydn's setting of the clarinet solo at the low end of register 5 and high end of register 4 is where the spectral nature of the clarinet, at soft dynamics, becomes sine-tone-like (almost all energy is focused in the fundamental with very few higher partials).[12] [ITC: 39] Voices, as well, can produce numerous partials at low intensities. Here again, Haydn's indication for the chorus to sing sotto voce from mm.18-26 has a decisive impact in the resultant spectral sparseness. Also, Gottlob Frick's performance of Raphael's bass solo is almost entirely sung in ‘head-voice'; which, in combination with Haydn's relatively high setting in the bass voice tessitura, results in a dramatic reduction of spectral activity. As the spectrographic photo reveals, Haydn has created sonorous darkness by subduing spectral ‘life' throughout Phase I: instrumental and vocal energies are effectively dimmed.

In turning to the explosion of light (mm. 27-30) let us compare two descriptions of how Haydn has manifested this most famous event.

The musicologist, Karl Schumann, writes:

This dawning of light at God's behest is achieved with the lapidary simplicity typical of Haydn – a shift from C minor via F minor and the dominant seventh of C to the brightest C major fortissimo in musical history...Harmony provides the underlying principle of a wisely planned creation.[13]

The Haydn scholar, James Webster, concludes:

...the creation of Light is based locally on the simplest contrasts: soft and loud, minor vs. major, unison vs. full harmony, "dry" pizzicato vs. full orchestra. The majority of Haydn's sublime passages arise from unusual or "pointed" combinations of just such contrasting features.[14]

For Karl Schumann, simple harmony is the means of creating light, and for Webster, the simplest contrasts. Neither Schumann nor Webster offers insight into the actual sonic nature of Haydn's light itself beyond these simple reductions. Is Haydn's art – and his craft in creating the explosion of light in particular – so very simply achieved? Is it really just a matter of having a particular harmonic progression or by contrasting "‘dry' staccato vs. full orchestra" that the impact of this passage is so affecting? Schumann and Webster seem to settle for descriptive reductionism in place of sonic reality. What sonic particularities are involved in composing for "full orchestra"?

Spectrographic analysis reveals that the explosion of light is anything but simple. Both Example I ({x}[15]: mm. 27-30) and Example II (close-up of Phase II: {x}) allow us to see that, rather than simple harmonic spectra (fundamentals with upper partials of whole-number multiples), the explosion of light is a complex, noise-filled sound-field. To come to a better understanding of this complexity we will investigate the tone color properties of the particular sounding forces themselves. Furthermore, we must try to arrive at some sense of the relationship between Haydn's choice of instrumentation, the resultant tone color properties of these forces based on their settings (pitches, register, intensity), and the total spectral saturation of mm. 27-30. With acknowledged debt to research by Latartara [ITC/ISE], Meyer [APM], and Seashore (via Cogan/Escot) [SD] let us try to piece together what this relationship might be.

Flutes: The flutes' unison doublings in registers 5 and 6 (E5-G5-C6-E6-G6-E6) are simultaneously bright in registral color and warm due to choral effect.[16] While, in this range, at fortissimo, most of the sonic energy of the flute is focused in the fundamental (there is a marked decrease in partial activity when playing in register 5), this is also the region where it displays two distinct acoustical phenomena caused by overblowing:[17] noise spectra and "ghost partials" (discussed below). [ITC: 25-26] Haydn has the flutes commence precisely on the note, E5, where flutes begin to produce "ghost partials" and abundant spectral noise near the second partial. [ITC: 26] Latartara's spectrographic research has discovered "ghost partials" – that the flute produces not one but two simultaneous overtone series when playing E5 and higher. [ITC: 26] From E5 through C6 (E5-G5-C6 in this passage) one series is built on the played fundamental, the other, the "ghost octave" series, is built on the octave below this fundamental. [ITC: 26] When playing D6 and higher (E6 and G6 in this passage), the flute can produce "ghost fifths": a series built on the played fundamental, and the other, the "ghost fifth" series, built on the fifth below this fundamental. [ITC: 26] The flutes, then, simultaneously define the upper melodic limit through their triadic ascent to the melodic/spatial apex, G6 (with inherent brightness and warmth), and contribute to the spectral saturation of sonorous light's upper region with both their double overtone series and spectral noise.

Oboes: The oboe has two formant regions (i.e., areas of pronounced spectral intensity that help to define the distinctive coloristic qualities of a given instrument): the lower formant region is 600-1,500 Hz (~registers 5-6), the upper formant region is 3,000-4,000 Hz (~register 7). [ITC: 33] Haydn's setting is interesting because all the pitches that the oboes play (C5-D5-E5-G5-B5-C6) lie solidly within the lower formant region, concentrating sonic energy in the fundamentals [ITC: 33] and highlighting the inherent brightness of these registers. At this range, and at fortissimo, the oboe also produces a marked flare-up of partials into registers 6-8: this produces both an ultra-acute tone color, and due to the close proximity of these partials to each other, vibrancy caused by acoustical beats.[18] [SD: 351] Thus, the oboes' brilliant spectral activity spans registers 5-8, infusing the entire upper realm of mm. 27-30.

Clarinets: Haydn's setting of the clarinets at the low end of register 5 (C5-D5-E5 as well as B4), fortissimo, would produce a consistent partial count of over ten, extending into register 8. [ITC: 39] While most of the clarinet's energy is focused on the bottom three partials (particularly in register 6, where the clarinet's formant region is [see ITC: 39]), there is also spectral intensity among odd-number partials – particularly the fifth, seventh, and ninth partials. [ITC: 39] As Seashore has shown, the source of the clarinet's characteristic "reediness, brilliance, and harshness" is the "presence in quantity" of these very partials. [SD: 355] Similar to the oboes in this passage, the clarinets' spectral activity extends from registers 5-8 – sonorous light's bright upper region.

Bassoons and Contrabassoons: At fortissimo, all pitches, from D4 and above on the bassoon, have an inherent, complex noise-like spectra. [ITC: 49] And like the oboe, the bassoon has two formant regions: 350-600 Hz (~register 4-lower half of register 5) and 1,000-1,200 Hz (~register 6). [ITC:46] Thus, with the exception of C4, the first bassoon's pitches (E4-F4-G4) lie entirely within the lower formant region – its fundamentals are highlighted – and spectral noise is produced.

However, the bassoon, at loud dynamics, also produces a large number of "high partials" which "bear great intensity." [SD: 355]. This high partial intensity actually "creates the illusion of loudness" as the bassoon's loud sounds are "only slightly greater than that of ‘soft' notes." [SD: 355] The high partial activity is most pronounced in the upper formant region, and again due to the close proximity of these partials to one another, create the bassoon's characteristic "buzzing" sound caused by acoustical beats. [ITC: 47] From their lowest fundamental, G3, up through spectral activity in register 6, the bassoons contribute intensive attack and "buzzing" noises in combination with intensive fundamental energies in register 4. While the bassoons activate the lower-middle to upper range of sonorous light, the contrabassoon (together with the double basses) occupies the grave realm of registers 1 and 2 (C1-G2-G1-C1) – light's dark region. Similar to the bassoons, the contrabassoon, at loud dynamics, generates an abundance of attack noise and due to the proximate nature of its many upper partials and resulting acoustical beats, produces a "rough quality."[19] [SD: 372] The contributions of the bassoons and contrabassoon to the explosion of light are not so much in terms of intensity as the intensive combination of attack noise, "buzzing" and "rough" beating, expansive spatial breadth (registers 1-6), and emphasized fundamentals in register 4.

Trumpets, Trombones, French Horns: Due to the abundance of partials that these brass instruments produce at fortissimo[20] (trumpets: over 30 partials [ITC: 66], trombones: over 40 partials [ITC: 74], French horns: from 12 to over 20+ partials [ITC: 59]), there is, in toto, a spectral saturation of registers 2-9 – and because of energy concentration in their high partials[21] – all produce vibrant "buzzing" and "metallic" qualities due to acoustical beats [ITC: 66, 74, 59 and APM: 46].

The trumpet's formant region spreads from 700-2,500 Hz (~registers 5-7), and at this fortissimo intensity level, the trumpet displays "complex, breath noise spectra" throughout this region. [ITC: 65] The spectral activity of the trumpet at this dynamic also extends into register 8 (5,000 Hz), giving it a "bright and brilliant sound." [APM: 42]

The French horn's formant region encompasses 200-1,000 Hz (~registers 3-5). [ITC: 58] Haydn situates the French horns' octave pedal (E3-E4) directly within their spectrally strongest range. This results in the ‘predominance' of E4, as both fundamental and second partial of E3, plus an additional energy concentration in register 5.

The alto, tenor, and bass trombone parts were added by Haydn after the first performance in Vienna. [PHC: 34-35] The formant regions for these three instruments spreads approximately from <200-1,500+ Hz (~register 3-6).[22] [ITC: 73 and SD: 356] Haydn has placed all of the trombone parts within their particular formant regions:[23] their addition further reinforces the bassoons' and French horns' spatial/spectral domain. At this intensity level, the trombones also add "attack noise," with a spectral flare-up into registers 8-9, at the onset of each of its notes. [ITC: 75] The trombones, then, also supplement the already abundant partial and noise spectra of the highest wind instruments discussed above.

The combined winds activate the entire spectral range of mm. 27-30. Rather than contribute a single (all from the "wind" family) or dual (woodwind and brass families) coloristic nature(s), they "complicate things" by their multiplex, individuated characteristics and properties – brightness, warmth, ghosts, vibrancy, reediness, brilliance, harshness, acuteness, graveness, roughness, strength, buzzing noises, breath noises, attack noises – all constructive elements of a sustained ‘purely musical light-affect'. Additionally, the numerous superpositions and proximity of particular fundamental, overtone, and noise frequencies of these different instruments results in further vibrant acoustical beating and warmth of choral effect. It is here that the significance of harmony – as a system of limited pitch collections of particular triadic formations (C major [C/E/G] in mm. 27, 28, and 30; dominant G7 [G/B/DF] in m. 29) – becomes a vital generator of a far more complex sonic matter: the inherent multiple superpositions among the different instruments of like frequencies – fundamentals, upper partials, and noise bands all expressively interfering with each other.

Strings: The strings further "complicate things." Haydn has set the strings in a way that simultaneously effectuates warmth, power, breadth, vibrancy, and noisiness. The multiple duplications of pitches by the string sections (i.e., 1st violins, 2nd violins, violas, cellos, and double basses) create the warmth of choral effect. At fortissimo, now senza sordino, the strings consistently produce between 25- 35 partials. [ISE: 169, 187, 210, 234] The contrast in partial quantity to Phase I (con sordino) is marked. The pronounced energy concentration in the respective formant regions of the strings (violins: 2,000-4,000 Hz [~register 7-8], violas: 1,000-3,000 Hz [~register 6-7], cellos: 500-1,000 Hz [top of register 4-register 5], double basses: 700-1,500 Hz [~registers 5-6], in conjunction with the pitch range (G1-E6) and wealth of partials (which reach up into register 9 [see APM: 61]), results in the total saturation of the entire spectral field of light, with particular emphasis of the upper half (top of register 4-register 8). The power, breadth, and brilliancy of this combination is immense.

Due to the wealth of high, proximate overtones – in all the strings – there is more abundant, vibrant beating. Additionally, Haydn's double stops in the violins (1st violins: C5/E5, m. 27; 2nd violins: E4/C5, m. 27), violas (G3/E4, mm. 27-29), and cellos (E3/C4, mm. 27-28) results in "buzzing" acoustical beats due to the profusion of closely-packed elements which these multi-spectral series generate. [ITC: 92, 95, 104] Particularly interesting is Haydn's choice of limiting the violins to just one bar of double stops: the double stop beating created by them – which is produced by a cluster of partials in register 7 [ISE: 162-164] – matches in spatial/ temporal position the spectral cluster of the chorus' [I] vowel (from "Licht": "light").[24] Haydn's setting of text and violins is in spectral accord.

While beating involves the interference of proximate partials around and above the fundamental pitch; Latartara has discovered that the spectrum of all string instruments have inherent complex, noise spectra below their fundamental. [ITC: 87 and 104] Thus, the spectral saturation of the strings actually extends even further beyond the immensity described above. The strings' spectra is further ‘complicated' by the production of complex, attack noise elements generated by staccato articulations and bow changes. [ITC:17, 89, 95, 104] Because of Haydn's combination of staccato and rapid rhythmic figurations (eighths and sixteenths in mm. 27-29) there is a consistent, rapidly repeated diffusion of noise spectra spanning the entire spectral expanse. This profusion of spectral noise is further heightened by the abundant spectral noise in the timpani's roll (m. 27) and sixteenth-note attacks (mm. 28-29).

The strings further "complicate things" with their paradoxical generation of warmth, power, breadth, vibrancy, and noisiness. As an "expressive material" body, they generate consistent sonic profiles: rich partial production, bow/attack/bow change noises, acoustical beats, choral effect. While the winds sound a sustained musical ‘light-affect,' the strings add quick micro-bursts of musical light-affect. Sonorous light radiates.

In both strings and winds the positive role of interference phenomena by acoustical beats and choral effect has been shown. These are fundamental sonic elements in Haydn's light-affect. But with such potent and multiplex sonic forces as Haydn has employed in mm. 27-30, their conjoining risks the possible negative dangers of masking. Masking "is the capacity of one sound to cover another, rendering it inaudible." [SD: 375] As Meyer describes it:

When two tones are heard at the same time an effect can occur that because of the loudness of one the other is inaudible even though it has a sound pressure level which is above the threshold of hearing for single tones...primary low notes weaken the subjective impression of the higher frequency components or even make them inaudible...the masking effect increases greatly with increasing loudness.[25]

Superposition of two tones can result in one of them being effectively cancelled out unless measures are taken to lessen this phenomenon.[26] In Haydn's creation of sonorous light the dangers are abundant because of the numerous superpositions of spectral elements at fortissimo. It is precisely in a passage like this that one may wonder what, during his ‘experiments' at Esterháza, did Haydn discover concerning the effective combination of such an array of sounding forces? "[W]hat created an impression and what weakened it."

[Author's italics] Haydn has solved this potential dilemma in two ways: by having the strings play staccato, and by having them play eighths and sixteenths. As Cogan and Escot point out in their discussion concerning masking, this phenomenon can be potentially avoided by:

Shortening potential masking tones...low notes that are potential maskers are shortened. ‘Air' is brought into the texture, and higher partials are allowed to sound freely.

Moving potential masking tones. Rapid low-register motion is a somewhat more dangerous but still possible masking-avoidance technique. Some masking of higher tones will occur, but partials masked will fluctuate with the motion.[27]

In having the strings not only play particular pitches (forming a particular harmonic progression) at a particular dynamic, Haydn's string articulation/rhythmic details both contribute to the complex spectral saturation of sonorous light and escape the pitfall of masking. Haydn's combination of strings and winds realizes a complex integration of a multiplex sonic construction of musical language, tone color, and linguistic elements deployed in a specific musical space and rhythm. Haydn's "lapidary simplicity" of harmonic process, his deployment of "full harmony" and "full orchestra" are not sonic givens. In point of fact, a cliché notion like harmonic simplicity as the artistic solution to the problem of creating sonorous light appears questionable. Schoenberg addressed this very concern when he wrote:

Even in the relatively simple forms, those most nearly related to the fundamental tone, which employ chords and chord progressions that are very near the key, tonality does not appear automatically, of itself, but requires the application of a number of artistic means to achieve its end unequivocally and convincingly.[28]

Clearly, Haydn's "application of a number of artistic means" is evident; indeed, Haydn's knowledge of the "strength and working of all" is vividly apparent.

We find then that Haydn's sonorous light is a complex of sound waves: discrete pitches with stable harmonic multiples, unstable noise spectra, and metastable[29] interference phenomena brought to a level of consistency with each other. The philosopher Gilbert Simondon refers to such a state as a process of individuation: where there exists a supersaturation or superfusion of stable, unstable, and metastable conditions.[30] The total spectral field of Haydn's sonorous light consists of pitch and harmonic "coherency" (i.e., a single frequency with a series of harmonic overtones that reinforce a pitch and harmonic combinations of pitches) plus "non-coherent" noise elements (i.e., a multiplicity of sound waves where there is no distinguishable pitch due to the complex combination of multiple frequencies that do not reinforce a "coherent" fundamental), which produce "in-between" phenomena which are calculable, have duration, have resonance, generate sensation, and are "perpetually ex-centric, perpetually peripheral in relation to [themselves]...cannot [be] said to possess any genuine interiority."[31] These "in-between" phenomena are metacoherent: they are the offspring of "coherent" and "non-coherent" elements and exist as pure affects (e.g., "roughness," "vibrancy," "brilliance," etc.). In other words, Haydn has not simply formed sonorous light (this would consist only of fixed, stable elements), nor has he created a wholly randomized state (a completely entropic condition without definable limits and predictable spectral constitution), but he has individuated it: he has created a field of consistency where all three coherencies co-exist. There is not total organization nor disorganization, but as Rajchman states, there is "an expressive material through a construct with an anorganized plan." [Author's italics] Sonorous light is an energy-field of becoming (literally, a process of coming into being), a sonic multiplicity.

Not until the beginning of the 20th century, with Albert Einstein's proposition of photon particles of light – in conjunction with earlier findings of James Clerk Maxwell and then Max Planck's concerning the photoelectric effect – did physicists determine that light is actually both a wave and particle phenomenon (the complementary theory of light). [TPU: 268-272] When Haydn composed his sonorous light, physicists had yet to resolve the debate as to the physical nature of light: the 17th century propositions of Christian Huygens (that light is a wave phenomenon) and Isaac Newton (that it is a stream of tiny particles) continued to divide the scientific community throughout the 18th century and beyond.[32] The next consequential discovery concerning the nature of light would not take place until 1808, ten years after Haydn's composition of The Creation, when Etienne Louis Malus found that light consists of tiny transverse waves moving up and down at right angles to the direction of the light ray. Early in the 19th century, experiments conducted by Thomas Young and Augustin Fresnel seemed to prove that light is a wave phenomenon, not made of particles. Then, later in the 19th century, Maxwell demonstrated that light consists of electromagnetic waves. It is fascinating to imagine that Haydn's creative work on sonorous light had already revealed a notion of light as both a sound-wave phenomenon and a succession of bursts (i.e., repeated attacks) or "packets" (photons) of energy, as well as a systemized supersaturation of energy with field conditions.

The Interaction of Darkness and Light

No light, but rather darkness visible.[33]

John Milton
Paradise Lost, Bk. I, I, 63

He complained, moreover, that our German poets did not write musically enough...
They are also not careful enough in the choice of vowel.[34]

Georg August Griesinger on Joseph Haydn's interest in vowel sounds

Webster's notion of the creation of light being based on contrasts obscures any sense of relation between darkness and light other than an oppositional one. At least, he makes no reference to any other type of relation. But is light so segregated from darkness? Is the explosion of light in mm. 27-30 prepared or foreshadowed in any way within darkness? Is darkness wholly dark? Are there any interpenetrations between these realms? Potential answers to these questions – and a perspective which seems to complicate a purely oppositional view of the creation of light – is the description by Haydn's "collaborator" on The Creation – Baron Gottfried Van Swieten.

Van Swieten, the Imperial Librarian of Vienna, in addition to translating The Creation's libretto from English to German, also advised Haydn on many details concerning the setting of text. He wrote that:

In the Chorus, the darkness could gradually disappear; but enough of the darkness should remain to make the momentary transition to light very effective. ‘Es werde Licht &c.' ["and let there be Light"] must only be said once.[35]

Van Swieten, in essence, poses an interesting compositional problem to Haydn: how to make a transformation of disappearing darkness. How does Van Swieten's advice – that "‘Es werde Licht &c.' ["and let there be Light"] must only be said once" – contribute to the transformation towards light that he prescribes? First of all, Haydn and Van Swieten portray the emergence of light out of darkness with a particular unfolding of vowel colorations. "...und Gott sprach: Es werde Licht..." consists of a series of ever-brightening vowels sounds: the gravest vowel [u], the grave [o] vowel, the neutral [a] vowel, the acute and complex [e] vowel, the more acute [e] vowel, and the still more acute [I] vowel. [See Example III, p. 25] Each vowel has a formant region (just like the instruments discussed earlier): the relative darkness or brightness the result of where the concentration of spectra for a particular vowel lies. As Cogan states concerning the concept of vowel sounds:

Certain of the vowels concentrate their spectra in the low, grave region...: [u], [u], [o], []. These spectra are opposed by the neutral spectra of [a], [a], and [œ]; and especially to the acute spectra of [æ], [E], [e], [I], and [i]. The neutral and acute vowels add upper partials (throughout reg. 6-7) to those of the grave vowels. In [e], [I] and [i], often regarded as the brightest vowels, the separation between grave and acute elements is the most distinct.[36]

+ ZOOM IMAGE +

Example III: {a}[37] displays a spectral ascent in mm. 22-24, matching the vowel color transformation from the grave [u] to the acute [e]; but there is a spectral drop-off in m. 25 ("Licht"). Because of the chorus' softness and darkening (mispronunciation) of the [I] vowel, this transformation is not fully realized in the reference performance.[38] While the conception of the performers may have been to not "give away" the ensuing "light" to come (i.e., at m. 27); other compositional details seem to reveal how the composer has shaped the musical design to a more "luminous" arrival. For example, the vowel color transformation is matched by the chorus' spatial ascent (mm. 23-24: C3-C5 —> mm. 25-26: F3-F5), the harmonic shift from C minor (i) up to F minor (iv), and the setting of the first annunciation of the word "Licht" being placed at the spatial apex of the entire vocal range (sopranos: F5). Haydn not only spatially projects to this summit, but parallels this gesture by a temporal impetus towards "Light" (which is on the downbeat and sustained) via rhythmic acceleration in chorus and strings in mm. 22-25 (quarter notes-half note —> eighth notes-half note). The potentially acute local climax at "Licht" is further intensified by the opposing spectral gravity of the string pizzicato (m. 25, third beat; dominant G7 chord) and silence (one of only three in the entire movement) that immediately follows. {b} Haydn's choice of pizzicato is interesting because this articulation results in a complex, noise-filled attack: the consonant cluster [cht] at the end of the word "Licht" also, if clearly pronounced (which this performance does not) has a similar noise filled spectrum. Haydn has foreshadowed the combination – which we have already seen so prominently displayed in mm. 27-30 – of light with noise. This phrase has an overall sound shape of spectral ascent (and increasing brightness of language and registral colors) and steep fall (to spectral darkness and nothingness). {c}

The sound shape presented just above appears at one other juncture in the piece: the immediately preceding passage of chorus and strings in mm. 17-21. Rising out of the bass solo's utterance (mm. 12-16) concerning "darkness" ("Finsternis") and "the deep" ("der Tiefe"),[39] the vowel colors of the text consist of two transformations toward brightness, as well as a concluding slight darkening: "Und der Geist" ("And the spirit": grave [u]-acute [e]-more acute [I]) and then the series of sustained vowels in "Gottes schwebte auf der Fläche der Wasser" ("God moved upon the face of the water": grave [o]-acute [e]-acute and complex [e²]-neutral [a]-dark neutral [e]). Compared with mm. 22-25, the melodic/spatial ascent is more slight (e.g., sopranos: Bb4-B4-C5) and the spectral rise and fall less extreme. {d} Also, Haydn retains more shades of darkness by modulating from Eb major (III) to C minor (i) and by having two transformations from grave vowels. Significantly, the second vowel transformation which begins in the sopranos (m. 19) on the grave [o] of "Gottes" is underlined by the entrance of the other, darker voice colors (altos, tenors, basses, and Raphael) on the grave [u] of "Und."[40] Additionally, the vowel color mixtures which ensue, particularly the simultaneous grave [o] of "Gottes" with the sopranos' acute [e] and neutral schwa "e" of "schwebte" reveal the subtle craft with which Haydn make the darkness "gradually disappear." Mm. 17-21, then, are a portrayal of an emergence.[41] Together, mm. 17-21 and 22-25 unfold two spectral/spatial waves: both rising and falling, the second passage elevating the crest and accentuating the oppositional fall, extending the overall long-range transformation towards the explosion of light.

The final choral utterance before the explosion of light (m. 26) involves another key vowel color sound shape: "und es ward" (grave [u] vowel, acute and complex [e] vowel, neutral [ a] vowel). This local color-wave is reflected on the global level by Haydn's choice of voice types. In the First Recitative-Chorus, Haydn – not following Van Swieten's prescription to assign the solos in recitatives to "Ein Engel" ("an angel"), keeping the same voice type for the entire recitative[42] - employed three vocal textures: solo bass (Raphael), chorus, and solo tenor (Uriel). Haydn's choice of vocal forces and their particular order of appearance in the First Recitative-Chorus matches the sound shape of vowel colorations:

Ordering of Voice Types:
Vowel Coloration in mm. 26:

Mm. 1-16: Raphael (bass voice) < —>grave [u] vowel ("und")
Mm. 17-27: Chorus (increase in vocal forces and higher voice types) <—>acute and complex [e] vowel ("es")
Uriel (tenor voice) <—> neutral [ a] vowel ("ward")

Could it be that Haydn decided to set these key words on a level plateau (sopranos/altos: G4, tenors/basses: G3) to highlight this very coloristic/spectral morphology?[43] {e}

Other interactions abound. Uriel's first tenor utterance[44] echoes the brightening vowel color transformations of mm. 17-25: "Und Gott sah das Licht" ("And God saw the light": grave [u]-grave [o]-neutral [a]'s-acute [I]). The melody of this utterance (C4-E4-D4-E4-C4) is heard in various augmented variants during the explosion of light (in mm. 27-30: 2nd oboe [C5-E5-D5-E5], 1st clarinet [C5-E5-D5-C5], 1st trumpet [C5-E5-D5-E5]; in mm. 28-30: 1st violins [C6-E6-D6-E6]).

Uriel's first utterance: 2nd oboe: 1st clarinet: 1st trumpet: 1st violins:

Perhaps to ensure their audibility amidst the complex, noise-filled sound-field, all of these melodic elements are compositionally amplified by Haydn via doubling and formant emphasis. Thus, the connection of Uriel's first utterance after the explosion of light – an utterance that concerns the visibility of light – is rendered audible by Haydn's setting.

Perhaps the most pervasive interaction between darkness and light in the First Recitative-Chorus comes about through Haydn's employment of repetition. For example, what begins as isolated fragments of pitch repetitions, primarily as darker (slow-moving, lugubrious) half and quarter notes, in mm. 1-16:

becomes long streams of repeated eighths (more energetic, active) in mm.17-21 (chorus and strings). The image of the spirit of God moving over the water is enacted in time relations. In mm. 22-26, each vocal utterance, and the strings in m. 23, includes rhythmic repetitions of quarters and eighths.[45] In the explosion of light, repetition undergoes a quantum leap in energy: eighth and sixteenth note rhythms, and timpani rolls. The accumulation of rhythmic repetitions throughout the First Recitative-Chorus, then, is a process of accelerating intensification. Even more, from mm. 17-25, the critical passage of the emergence of sonorous light, there is a temporal compression of musical events: "und der Geist...Wasser" (22 quarter-note beats) to "und Gott sprach...Licht" (12 beats) to the string pizzicato and silence (2 beats). In this way, Haydn's accelerating repetitions and diminutions of time spans combine to create his principal transformations.

Pitch repetitions are paralleled by word repetition. In the First Recitative-Chorus, the text consists of twenty-nine different words – thirteen of which are repeated one or more times and sixteen that are not.[46] There are a total of fifty-two word repetitions:

und: 10 times
der: 8 times
Gott(es): 6 times
Licht: 4 times
war(d): 4 times
auf: 3 times
Fläche: 3 times
es: 3 times
das(s): 3 times
Erde: 2 times
Finsternis: 2 times
schwebte: 2 times
Geist: 2 times

Haydn/Van Swieten have filled the First Recitative-Chorus sonic universe with constellations of repeated words-colors-sounds in streams and quanta of pitch repetitions. The interactions of darkness and light are multifarious. Extending the Deleuze quote concerning Eisenstein from Part I:

"There is not simply the organic unity of opposites, but the pathetic passage
of the opposite into its contrary. The pathetic is simultaneously the transition from one term to another, from one quality to another, and the sudden upsurge of the new quality which is born from the transition which has been accomplished. It is both ‘compression' and ‘explosion.' What Eisenstein calls ‘attractional calculus' marks [the] dialectical yearning of the image to gain new dimensions, that is, to leap from one power into another."[47]

The creation of sonorous darkness and light cannot be understood without the recognition of the "pathetic passage" from dark powers to light: the interactions, the "attractional calculus," that bonds opposing realms through sonic and temporal relations. This analysis has sought to illuminate a small part of Haydn's sonic universe. It has hoped to catch some glimpses of a rich cosmos of sonic and temporal relations still largely unexplored, even in the best Haydn research. Just as Haydn has masterfully rendered the seeming impossibility of making sonorous darkness and light, how can one not yearn to explore the still unrecognized regions of sound, time, and thought where the impossibilities we are so fortunate to encounter are sometimes realized?

When Haydn visited England in the early 1790's, he met William Herschel, the astronomer who had discovered the planet Uranus in 1781 and the first scientist who tried to understand, beyond our solar system, the structure of the Universe. [TPU: 643] With his famous gigantic telescope – which Haydn described with its dimensions in his notebook, and which the distinguished and royal visitors were able to walk through[48] – Herschel began what is today referred to as modern cosmology. Specifically, what Haydn took away from this encounter is unknown, but we are permitted to wonder.

Notes

* Sakata's analysis of Haydn's The Creation is taken from his dissertation "Between Cosmic Oppositions: Analyses of Pansori and Haydn." This introduction is the original one from the dissertation and has been left unchanged in order to offer context for the Haydn analysis.

1. Quoted by Elaine Sisman, "Haydn, Shakespeare, and the Rules of Originality," in HHW, p. 3. The original quote is from Georg August Griesinger Biographische Notizen über Joseph Haydn, trans. Vernon Gotwals (Leipzig, 1810; Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1963), p. 24. Haydn was describing to Griesinger his experiences as head of the orchestra at Esterháza.
2. John Rajchman, The Deleuze Connections (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 2000), p. 138. In Deleuzian thought, "anorganization" refers to a plan or plane of composition that is neither organized nor disorganized. Such a plan(e) is a multiplicity and consists of an aggregation of singularities (i.e., non-definable, fuzzy energies, intensities, magnitudes). Singularities are not identities (i.e., definable entities). Whereas an organized plan is made up of identities and a disorganized plan involves a disarray of identities; an anorganized plan is an open assemblage of singularities.
3. Michel Foucault, "What is Enlightenment?," from The Foucault Reader, ed. Paul Rabinow (New York: Pantheon, 1984), p. 32-50.
4. Harmony, counterpoint, rhetorical analysis, theme-based formalisms, notions of orchestration which are not based on actual sonic properties of instruments (including mimesis), linear evolution (including Schenkerian analysis), set theory, agency theory, etc.
5. PHC, p. 1.
6. In The European Magazine and London Review; for October 1784, German critics are quoted, as remarking that Haydn was "the inventor of a new musical doctrine...introducing a species of sounds totally unknown to that country [i.e., Germany]." From "An Account of Joseph Haydn, a Celebrated Composer of Music," quoted in A. Peter Brown, "The Earliest English Biography of Haydn," Musical Quarterly 59 (1973), p. 343.
7. Griesinger, p. 63
8. Friederich Blume, Classical and Romantic Music: A Comprehensive Survey, "The Orchestra and the Classic Concept of Sound," (New York: Norton, 1970), p. 79.
9. Example 1 is a spectrographic photo of the First Recitative-Chorus as performed by conductor Eugen Jochum and the Bavarian Radio Orchestra and Chorus (Phillips Classic: 426 651-2, 1966). The spectrographic photos of this performance (Examples I-III) were made at the Malcolm S. Morse Memorial Sonic Analysis Laboratory of New England Conservatory in 1996 and 2002. My appreciation to Robert Cogan for his kind permission, and to Colin Homiski and Peter Evans for their assistance in creating these images.
   
   A note on reading the spectrographic photos: As in Part I, audible space is displayed vertically (registers [octave designations] are given on the far-left vertical axis); clock time horizontally. The visible spectrum – fundamentals with overtones – is created by vocal/instrumental activations (energy appearing as horizontal, diagonal, and vertical lines).
   
   
10. As in Part I, the linguistic terms sparse and rich are used to describe, respectively, the relative spectral sparseness (i.e., relative lack of energy activation) and the relative spectral richness (i.e., relative abundance of energy activation) of a sonic event in context with surrounding events.
11. That is, while a violin, without mute, sounding at a given softness, produces 21+ partials; the same violin, with mute, produces only 3 partials. The reduction of partials for the viola, cello, and bass follow similarly.
12. On the local level, Haydn's choice of the clarinet is also significant: its spectral emptiness (the omission of even-numbered partials) prepares, in sensation, for Raphael's next utterance concerning the earth as "void" ("leer").
13. Karl Schumann, recording notes, The Creation (Phillips Classic: 426 651-2, 1966), pp. 8 and 12.
14. James Webster, "The Creation, Haydn's Late Vocal Music, and the Musical Sublime," in HHW, p. 66.
15. Letters in braces refer to corresponding details designated on spectrographic photos.
16. See SD: 374-375 concerning choral effect and its affective nature.
17. From E5 and higher the flute is played by "overblowing": that is, altering the angle of the air column in combination with an increase in wind-pressure.
18. Concerning acoustical beats, see SD: 370-374.
19. According to Lyndesay G. Langwill, while the contrabassoon's origin goes back as far as the 16th century, its use in orchestral settings was quite rare throughout the 16th-18th centuries. Prior to The Creation, Haydn used it only once – in The Seven Last Words (1786). He also used it in The Seasons. Langwill also claims that in Continental Europe, Vienna seems to have been one of the few cities that had access to contrabassoons during the late 18th century. There are written records of a number of events in England as to when contrabassoons were actually employed during the 18th century: most of them seem to have involved concerts of Handel's music (1727: Hymn for the Coronation, 1740: L'Allegro, 1749: Firework Music, 1784: the first Handel Commemoration in Westminster Abbey, 1787: the Fourth Handel Festival). When Haydn attended the 1791 Handel Festival at Westminster Abbey, on his trip in the early 1790's to London, one wonders whether he heard any works by Handel including contrabassoon? See Lyndesay G. Langwill, The Bassoon and the Double Bassoon: A Short History of Their Origin, Development, and Makers (London: Hinrichsen, n.d.), pp. 28-32.
20. That is, on the pitches that Haydn has set them.
21. The trumpets and trombones have a more extreme energy concentration in their upper spectral regions than the French horns, which have a more equally dispersed energy throughout their "well-balanced spread of partials" [SD: 355].
    
22. To date, spectrographic analyses have only studied the tenor trombone (its formant region is 200-1,500 Hz [see ITC: 73]) and the bass trombone (Meyer does not give precise measurements, but only states that the formant region is "shifted a little to lower frequencies in comparison with the tenor trombone, but the whole characteristic formant series of the trombone remains"). [APM: 47-48]. It is likely that the alto trombone's formant region would extend higher than 1,500 Hz.
    
23. Until further spectral analysis is conducted, the bass trombone's G2 is an exception. According to Meyer, the bass trombone's formant region extends lower than 200 Hz, but he does not offer a specific frequency. [APM: 47] The G2 might lie within the bass trombone's formant region.
    
24. The formant region for the [I] vowel is register 7. See Robert Cogan, The Sounds of Song: A Picture Book of Music for Voice (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1999), p. 132.
    
25. APM, p. 16.
    
26. For further details concerning the acoustical mechanics of masking see SD: 375-385 (including examples of positive utilizations of masking) and APM: 16-17.
    
27. SD, p. 380.
    
28. Arnold Schoenberg, "Problems of Harmony," in Style and Idea: Selected Writings of Arnold Schoenberg, ed. Leonard Stein, trans. Leo Black (New York: St. Martins Press, 1975; Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977), p. 274. [Author's italics]
    
29. Metastability refers to a condition which can be understood through calculation but which is neither wholly stable nor unstable. It is dependent on the "shifting" or "mobile" relations of stable and unstable states, and therefore totally relative to conditions external to itself. This term is taken from 20th century atomic theory. See TPU, p. 286-287.
    
30. Gilbert Simondon, "The Genesis of the Individual," in Incorporations, ed. Jonathan Crary and Sanford Kwinter, trans. Mark Cohen and Sanford
    Kwinter (New York: Zone, 1992), p. 296-319.
    
31. Ibid., p. 305.
    
32. See Victor F. Weisskopf, Knowledge and Wonder: The Natural World As Man Knows It (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1962), pp. 48-66.
    
33. John Milton, Paradise Lost, ed. Edward Le Comte (New York: Penguin, 1961).
    
34. Griesinger, p. 63. Perhaps coincidentally, Haydn's contemporary and admirer, Pastor Johann Karl Friedrich Triest, echoes similarly (and more forcefully) that: "The most important thing, however – I state this brazenly – is the almost complete lack of genuinely musical German poets, i.e. poems that not only have a beautiful, really poetic content and form, corresponding to the essence and aim of the art of music, but also are distinguished by the careful choice of sonorous, singable words." Johann Karl Friedrich Triest, "Remarks on the Development of the Art of Music in Germany in the Eighteenth Century (1801)," in HHW, p. 394. Italics original.
    
35. HTC, p. 79.
    
36. Cogan, ibid., p. 134.
    
37. Letters in braces refer to corresponding details on Example III designated by the same letter.
    
38. Where the missing spectral activity should have been located (with proper diction) is circled on Example III: {a}. The dotted line indicates what the sound shape would have been if vowels were correctly enunciated. The solid line indicates the sound shape as performed.
    
39. Note that the descending perfect fourth on "Tiefe" (Eb3-Bb2) is inverted in the cellos and double basses (Bb1/2-Eb2/3). This ascending gesture is then picked up by the violins' rising Eb major triad in registers 3-4 and the sopranos augmented version of this Eb major chord, also register 4) in mm. 17-18. This melodic/spatial inversion (evocatively matched by the harmonic "inversion" from Eb minor to Eb major) is the beginning of the local sound shape as well as the evolution towards light.
    
40. Of course, the role of the cellos and double basses descending to the bottom of registers 2 and 3 (Eb2/3-D2/3-C2/3) in these measures must also be noted, as well as Haydn's choice to retain Raphael's bass presence throughout the chorus passage.
    
41. As in mm. 27-30, the abundance of superposed fundamentals and overtones of chorus/strings in this passage produces acoustical beats and the warmth of choral effect. The slight pulsation of beats, the strings' portato eighths, and language sound compounds (i.e., the simultaneity of different phonemes) seem to evocate the image of the surface of water being ever so slightly ruffled by an invisible source. Like in mm. 27-30, this superposition of sonic elements also risks the danger of masking. Haydn avoids this problem by having the strings play portato articulation ("Shortening potential masking tones") and having the strings play eighths ("Moving potential masking tones"). Once again, his solution brings together semantic utterance and coloristic essence.
    
42. HTC, p. 23.
    
43. This sound shape is not fully realized: the performers' softness and darkening (mispronunciation) of the acute and complex [e] vowel from "es" is revealed on the spectrographic photo. Where the missing spectral activity should have been located (with proper diction) is circled.
    
44. Haydn's employment of the higher (brighter) of male voice types for Uriel and the lower (darker) bass for Raphael, further contributes to the contrast between realms of light vs. darkness.
    
45. Could it be that after such an extensive continuity of repetitions that the strings' lone pizzicato chord and the following silence in m. 25 are so unexpected and effective?
    
46. I have counted simultaneous enunciations as a single instance (e.g., each word in the choral passage"...Wasser; und Gott sprach: Es werde Licht, und es ward Licht" is counted as an individual enunciation).
    
47. Gilles Deleuze, Cinema I: The Movement-Image (Minuit: 1983), pp. 33-35.
    
48. Karl Geiringer, Haydn: A Creative Life in Music (New York: Norton, 1946; Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968), p. 167.

Jon Sakata teaches piano and theory at New England Conservatory of Music, piano, composition and harpsichord at Phillips Exeter Academy, has recorded for Gunmar, Sachimay, Vogt, and Encounter labels and has performed in North America, Europe and Asia.

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